Because life arose in the largely unknown surface conditions of Earth’s early history, answering these and other questions ... highly acidic hot springs environments like those found today in Iceland, ...

The cool conditions which have allowed ice caps to form on Earth are rare events in the planet’s history and require ... Model’ has only recently been made possible through advances in computing.

More than half a billion years ago on a frigid, ice-covered Earth, glaciers stirred up ingredients for complex life by bulldozing land minerals and then depositing them in the ocean, according to ...